Antonio Luna
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Antonio Narciso Luna de San Pedro y Novicio Ancheta (; October 29, 1866 – June 5, 1899) was a
Filipino Filipino may refer to: * Something from or related to the Philippines ** Filipino language, standardized variety of 'Tagalog', the national language and one of the official languages of the Philippines. ** Filipinos, people who are citizens of th ...
army general who fought in the
Philippine–American War The Philippine–American War or Filipino–American War ( es, Guerra filipina-estadounidense, tl, Digmaang Pilipino–Amerikano), previously referred to as the Philippine Insurrection or the Tagalog Insurgency by the United States, was an arm ...
before his assassination in 1899. Regarded as one of the fiercest generals of his time, he succeeded
Artemio Ricarte Artemio Ricarte y García (October 20, 1866 – July 31, 1945) was a Filipino general during the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine–American War. He is regarded as the ''Father of the Philippine Army'', and the first Chief of Staff ...
as the
Commanding General of the Philippine Army The Commanding General of the Philippine Army (CGPA) is the overall commander and senior general of the Philippine Army, the ground warfare branch of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. It is normally held by a three-star rank of Lieutenant Gener ...
. He sought to apply his background in military science to the fledgling army. A sharpshooter himself, he organized professional guerrilla soldiers later named the "
Luna Sharpshooters The Luna Sharpshooters, also known as the "Marksmen of Death" (Spanish: ''Tiradores de la Muerte''), was an elite unit formed by General Antonio Luna to serve under the Philippine Revolutionary Army. They became famous for fighting fiercer than ...
" and the "Black Guard" with Senyor Michael Joaquin. His three-tier defense, now known as the Luna Defense Line, gave the American troops a difficult endeavor during their campaign in the provinces north of
Manila Manila ( , ; fil, Maynila, ), officially the City of Manila ( fil, Lungsod ng Maynila, ), is the capital of the Philippines, and its second-most populous city. It is highly urbanized and, as of 2019, was the world's most densely populate ...
. This defense line culminated in the creation of a military stronghold in the
Cordillera A cordillera is an extensive chain and/or network system of mountain ranges, such as those in the west coast of the Americas. The term is borrowed from Spanish, where the word comes from , a diminutive of ('rope'). The term is most commonly u ...
. Despite his commitment to discipline the army and serve the Republic which attracted the admiration of people, his temper and fiery outlashes caused some to abhor him, including people from
Aguinaldo A thirteenth salary, or end-of-year bonus, is an extra payment given to employees at the end of December. Although the amount of the payment depends on a number of factors, it usually matches an employee's monthly salary and can be paid in o ...
's
Cabinet Cabinet or The Cabinet may refer to: Furniture * Cabinetry, a box-shaped piece of furniture with doors and/or drawers * Display cabinet, a piece of furniture with one or more transparent glass sheets or transparent polycarbonate sheets * Filing ...
. Nevertheless, Luna's efforts were not without recognition during his time, for he was awarded the Philippine Republic Medal in 1899. He was also a member of the
Malolos Congress The Malolos Congress (also known as the Revolutionary Congress), formally known as the National Assembly, was the legislative body of the Revolutionary Government of the Philippines. Members were chosen in the elections held from June 23 to Septe ...
. Besides his military studies, Luna also studied
pharmacology Pharmacology is a branch of medicine, biology and pharmaceutical sciences concerned with drug or medication action, where a drug may be defined as any artificial, natural, or endogenous (from within the body) molecule which exerts a biochemica ...
,
literature Literature is any collection of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to include ...
, and
chemistry Chemistry is the science, scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a natural science that covers the Chemical element, elements that make up matter to the chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules and ions ...
.


Family background

Antonio Narciso Luna de San Pedro y Novicio Ancheta was born on October 29, 1866, at their house along Calle Urbiztondo (renamed Barraca Street) in
Binondo Binondo () is a district in Manila and is referred to as the city's Chinatown. Its influence extends beyond to the places of Quiapo, Santa Cruz, San Nicolas and Tondo. It is the oldest Chinatown in the world, established in 1594 by the ...
(now part of San Nicolas),
Manila Manila ( , ; fil, Maynila, ), officially the City of Manila ( fil, Lungsod ng Maynila, ), is the capital of the Philippines, and its second-most populous city. It is highly urbanized and, as of 2019, was the world's most densely populate ...
. He was the youngest of seven children of Joaquín Luna de San Pedro y Posadas (1829–1891) from
Badoc Badoc, officially the Municipality of Badoc ( ilo, Ili ti Badoc; tl, Bayan ng Badoc), is a 3rd class municipality in the province of Ilocos Norte, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 32,530 people. It is the birt ...
and Spanish
mestiza (; ; fem. ) is a term used for racial classification to refer to a person of mixed European and Indigenous American ancestry. In certain regions such as Latin America, it may also refer to people who are culturally European even though thei ...
Laureana Novicio y Ancheta (1836–1906) from Namacpacan,
La Union La Union (), officially the Province of La Union ( ilo, Probinsia ti La Union; Kankanaey'': Probinsyan di La Union;'' Ibaloi'': Probinsya ne La Union;'' pag, Luyag/Probinsia na La Union; Tagalog'': Lalawigan ng La Union),'' is a province in th ...
(now ''Luna''). His father was a traveling salesman of the government tobacco monopoly. The tobacco monopoly was formally established in 1782. After their family moved to Manila in 1861, his father became a merchant in Binondo.


Siblings

His older brother,
Juan ''Juan'' is a given name, the Spanish and Manx versions of ''John''. It is very common in Spain and in other Spanish-speaking communities around the world and in the Philippines, and also (pronounced differently) in the Isle of Man. In Spanish, ...
, was an accomplished painter who studied in the
Madrid Madrid ( , ) is the capital and most populous city of Spain. The city has almost 3.4 million inhabitants and a metropolitan area population of approximately 6.7 million. It is the second-largest city in the European Union (EU), and ...
Escuela de Bellas Artes de San Fernando. His
Spoliarium The ''Spoliarium'' (often misspelled ''Spolarium'') is a painting by Filipino painter Juan Luna. Luna, working on canvas, spent eight months completing the painting which depicts dying gladiators. The painting was submitted by Luna to the ''Expos ...
garnered one of the three gold medals awarded in the
Madrid Madrid ( , ) is the capital and most populous city of Spain. The city has almost 3.4 million inhabitants and a metropolitan area population of approximately 6.7 million. It is the second-largest city in the European Union (EU), and ...
''Exposición Nacional de Bellas Artes'' in 1884. Another brother, José, became a doctor. Yet another brother,
Joaquín Joaquín or Joaquin is a male given name, the Spanish version of Joachim. Given name * Joaquín (footballer, born 1956), Spanish football midfielder * Joaquín (footballer, born 1981), Spanish football winger * Joaquín (footballer, born 1982 ...
, fought with Antonio in the
Philippine–American War The Philippine–American War or Filipino–American War ( es, Guerra filipina-estadounidense, tl, Digmaang Pilipino–Amerikano), previously referred to as the Philippine Insurrection or the Tagalog Insurgency by the United States, was an arm ...
, and later served as governor of
La Union La Union (), officially the Province of La Union ( ilo, Probinsia ti La Union; Kankanaey'': Probinsyan di La Union;'' Ibaloi'': Probinsya ne La Union;'' pag, Luyag/Probinsia na La Union; Tagalog'': Lalawigan ng La Union),'' is a province in th ...
from 1904 to 1907. Joaquín would also serve as senator from 1916 to 1919. His three other siblings were Numeriana, Manuel, and Remedios.


Education

At the age of 6, Luna learned reading, writing, and arithmetic from a teacher known as Maestro Intong. He also memorized the ''
Doctrina Christiana The ''Doctrina Christiana'' ( eng, Christian Doctrine) was an early book on the catechism of the Catholic Church, written in 1593 by Fray Juan de Plasencia, and is believed to be one of the earliest printed books in the Philippines. Title ...
'', believed to be the first book printed in the Philippines. The book consists of 38 leaves and 74 pages of text in Spanish, Tagalog transliterated into roman letters, and Tagalog. After his education under Maestro Intong, he studied at the
Ateneo Municipal de Manila , mottoeng = Light in the Lord , type = Private, research, non-profit, coeducational basic and higher education institution , established = December 10, 1859 , religious_affiliation = Roman Catholic (Jesuits) , academic_af ...
, where he received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1881. He went on to study literature and chemistry at the
University of Santo Tomas The University of Santo Tomas (also known as UST and officially as the Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas, Manila) is a private, Catholic research university in Manila, Philippines. Founded on April 28, 1611, by Spanish friar Miguel ...
, where he won first prize for a paper in chemistry titled ''Two Fundamental Bodies of Chemistry'' (''Dos Cuerpos Fundamentales de la Quimica''). He also studied Pharmacy. Meanwhile, his background on swordsmanship, fencing, and military tactics came from his studies under Don Martin Cartagena, a major in the Spanish Army. In addition, he acquired skill to become a sharpshooter. Upon the invitation of his elder brother
Juan ''Juan'' is a given name, the Spanish and Manx versions of ''John''. It is very common in Spain and in other Spanish-speaking communities around the world and in the Philippines, and also (pronounced differently) in the Isle of Man. In Spanish, ...
in 1890, Antonio was sent by his parents to Spain. There he acquired a licentiate (at
Universidad de Barcelona The University of Barcelona ( ca, Universitat de Barcelona, UB; ; es, link=no, Universidad de Barcelona) is a public university located in the city of Barcelona, Catalonia, in Spain. With 63,000 students, it is one of the biggest universities i ...
) and doctorate (at
Universidad Central de Madrid The Complutense University of Madrid ( es, Universidad Complutense de Madrid; UCM, links=no, ''Universidad de Madrid'', ''Universidad Central de Madrid''; la, Universitas Complutensis Matritensis, links=no) is a public research university loca ...
).


Scientific achievements

Luna was active as a researcher in the scientific community. After receiving his doctorate in 1893, he published a scientific treatise on malaria entitled ''On Malarial Pathology'' (''El Hematozoario del Paludismo''), which was favorably received in the scientific community. He then went to Belgium and France, and worked as an assistant to Dr. Latteaux at the
Pasteur Institute The Pasteur Institute (french: Institut Pasteur) is a French non-profit private foundation dedicated to the study of biology, micro-organisms, diseases, and vaccines. It is named after Louis Pasteur, who invented pasteurization and vaccines f ...
and to Dr. Laffen. In recognition of his ability, he was commissioned by the Spanish government to study tropical and communicable diseases. In 1894, he returned to the Philippines where he took part in an examination to determine who would become the chief chemist of the Municipal Laboratory of Manila. Luna came in first and won the position.


Propaganda Movement

In Spain, he became one of the Filipino
expatriate An expatriate (often shortened to expat) is a person who resides outside their native country. In common usage, the term often refers to educated professionals, skilled workers, or artists taking positions outside their home country, either ...
s who mounted the
Propaganda Movement The Propaganda Movement encompassed the activities of a group of Filipinos who called for political reforms in their land in the late 19th century, and produced books, leaflets, and newspaper articles to educate others about their goals and is ...
and wrote for '' La Solidaridad'', headed by
Galicano Apacible Galicano Apacible Antonio y del Castillo (June 25, 1864 – March 22, 1949) was a Filipino physician and politician from Batangas. A cousin to José Rizal, he co-founded La Solidaridad and the Nacionalista Party. He held the office of governo ...
. He wrote a piece titled ''Impressions'' which dealt with Spanish customs and idiosyncrasies under the
pen-name A pen name, also called a ''nom de plume'' or a literary double, is a pseudonym (or, in some cases, a variant form of a real name) adopted by an author and printed on the title page or by-line of their works in place of their real name. A pen na ...
"Taga-ilog". Also, like many of the Filipino liberals in Spain, Luna joined the Masonry where he rose to being Master Mason. He and his brother Juan also opened the ''Sala de Armas'', a fencing club, in
Manila Manila ( , ; fil, Maynila, ), officially the City of Manila ( fil, Lungsod ng Maynila, ), is the capital of the Philippines, and its second-most populous city. It is highly urbanized and, as of 2019, was the world's most densely populate ...
. When he learned of the underground societies that were planning a revolution and was asked to join, he scoffed at the idea and turned down the offer. Like other Filipino émigrés involved in the Reform Movement, he was in favor of reform rather than revolution as the way towards independence. Besides affecting their property, the proponents of the Reform Movement saw that no revolution would succeed without the necessary preparations. Nevertheless, after the existence of the
Katipunan The Katipunan, officially known as the Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan or Kataastaasan Kagalang-galang na Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK; en, Supreme and Honorable Association of the Children of the Nation ...
was leaked in August 1896, the Luna brothers were arrested and jailed in
Fort Santiago Fort Santiago ( es, Fuerte de Santiago; fil, Kutà ng Santiago), built in 1571, is a citadel built by Spanish navigator and governor Miguel López de Legazpi for the newly established city of Manila in the Philippines. The defense fortress is lo ...
for "participating" in the revolution. His statement concerning the revolution was one of the many statements used to abet the laying down of death sentence for
José Rizal José Protasio Rizal Mercado y Alonso Realonda (, ; June 19, 1861 – December 30, 1896) was a Filipino nationalist, writer and polymath active at the end of the Spanish colonial period of the Philippines. He is considered the national he ...
. Months later, José and Juan were freed but Antonio was exiled to Spain in 1897, where he was imprisoned in Madrid's Cárcel Modelo. His more famous and controversial brother, Juan, who had been pardoned by the Spanish Queen Regent Maria Christina of Austria herself, left for Spain to use his influence to intercede for Antonio in August 1897. Antonio's case was dismissed by the Military Supreme Court and he was released. Upon his release in December 1897, Luna studied field fortifications,
guerrilla warfare Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare in which small groups of combatants, such as paramilitary personnel, armed civilians, or Irregular military, irregulars, use military tactics including ambushes, sabotage, Raid (military), raids ...
, organization, and other aspects of military science under Gerard Leman, who would later be the commanding general of the fortress at
Liège Liège ( , , ; wa, Lîdje ; nl, Luik ; german: Lüttich ) is a major city and municipality of Wallonia and the capital of the Belgian province of Liège. The city is situated in the valley of the Meuse, in the east of Belgium, not far from b ...
. He also read extensively about the discipline when he was at the
Ateneo de Madrid The Ateneo de Madrid ("Athenæum of Madrid") is a private cultural institution located in the capital of Spain that was founded in 1835. Its full name is ''Ateneo Científico, Literario y Artístico de Madrid'' ("Scientific, Literary and Artistic ...
. The second phase of the revolution began with the return of Emilio Aguinaldo and the
Dictatorial Government of the Philippines The Dictatorial Government of the Philippines ( es, Gobierno Dictatorial de Filipinas) was an insurgent government in the Spanish East Indies inaugurated during the Spanish–American War by Emilio Aguinaldo in a public address on May 24, 1898, ...
by the US Navy to
Cavite Cavite, officially the Province of Cavite ( tl, Lalawigan ng Kabite; Chavacano: ''Provincia de Cavite''), is a province in the Philippines located in the Calabarzon region in Luzon. Located on the southern shores of Manila Bay and southwest ...
in 1898. Upon arriving in Hong Kong, he was given a letter of recommendation to Aguinaldo and a
revolver A revolver (also called a wheel gun) is a repeating handgun that has at least one barrel and uses a revolving cylinder containing multiple chambers (each holding a single cartridge) for firing. Because most revolver models hold up to six roun ...
by
Felipe Agoncillo Don Felipe Agoncillo y Encarnación (May 26, 1859 – September 29, 1941) was the Filipino lawyer representative to the negotiations in Paris that led to the Treaty of Paris (1898), ending the Spanish–American War and achieving him the ...
. He returned to the Philippines in July 1898.


Personal life

Luna courted Nellie Boustead, a woman who was also courted by
José Rizal José Protasio Rizal Mercado y Alonso Realonda (, ; June 19, 1861 – December 30, 1896) was a Filipino nationalist, writer and polymath active at the end of the Spanish colonial period of the Philippines. He is considered the national he ...
, between 1889 and 1891. Boustead was reportedly infatuated with Rizal. In a party held by Filipinos, a drunk Antonio Luna made unsavory remarks against Boustead. This prompted Rizal to challenge Luna to a duel. However, Luna apologized to Rizal, thus averting a duel between the compatriots.


Philippine–American War


Prior to the war

Since June 1898, Manila had been surrounded by the revolutionary troops. Colonel Luciano San Miguel occupied Mandaluyong, General Pío del Pilar,
Makati Makati ( ), officially the City of Makati ( fil, Lungsod ng Makati), is a 1st class highly urbanized city in the National Capital Region of the Philippines. Makati is the financial center of the Philippines; it has the highest concentration ...
, General Mariano Noriel,
Parañaque Parañaque, officially the City of Parañaque ( fil, Lungsod ng Parañaque, ), is a first class Cities of the Philippines#Legal classification, highly urbanized city in the Metro Manila, National Capital Region of the Philippines. According to t ...
, Colonel Enrique Pacheco,
Navotas Navotas, officially the City of Navotas ( fil, Lungsod ng Navotas), is a 1st class highly urbanized city in the National Capital Region of the Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 247,543 people. It is known as the ...
, Tambobong and
Caloocan Caloocan, officially the City of Caloocan ( fil, Lungsod ng Caloocan; ), is a 1st class highly urbanized city in Metropolitan Manila, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 1,661,584 people making it the fourth-most ...
. General
Gregorio del Pilar Gregorio Hilario del Pilar y Sempio (; ; November 14, 1875 – December 2, 1899) was a Filipino general of the Philippine Revolutionary Army during the Philippine–American War. As one of the youngest generals in the Revolutionary Army, he ...
marched through Sampaloc, taking Tondo,
Divisoria Divisoria is a commercial center in between Tondo and Binondo in Manila, Philippines known for its shops that sell low-priced goods and its diverse manufacturing activities. Tutuban Center is situated within the commercial hub along with a night ...
, and Azcárraga, Noriel cleared Singalong and
Paco Paco is a Spanish nickname for Francisco. According to folk etymology, the nickname has its origins in Saint Francis of Assisi, who was the father of the Franciscan order; his name was written in Latin by the order as ''Pater Communitatis'' (fath ...
, and held
Ermita Ermita is a district in Manila, Philippines. Located at the central part of the city, the district is a significant center of finance, education, culture, and commerce. Ermita serves as the civic center of the city, bearing the seat of city ...
and
Malate Malic acid is an organic compound with the molecular formula . It is a dicarboxylic acid that is made by all living organisms, contributes to the sour taste of fruits, and is used as a food additive. Malic acid has two stereoisomeric forms (L ...
. Luna thought the Filipinos should enter
Intramuros Intramuros (Latin for "inside the walls") is the historic walled area within the city of Manila, the capital of the Philippines. It is administered by the Intramuros Administration with the help of the city government of Manila. Present-day I ...
to have joint occupation of the walled city. But Aguinaldo, heeding the advice of General
Wesley Merritt Wesley Merritt (June 16, 1836December 3, 1910) was an American major general who served in the cavalry of the United States Army during the American Civil War, American Indian Wars, and Spanish–American War. Following the latter war, he became ...
and Commodore (later Admiral)
George Dewey George Dewey (December 26, 1837January 16, 1917) was Admiral of the Navy, the only person in United States history to have attained that rank. He is best known for his victory at the Battle of Manila Bay during the Spanish–American War, with ...
, whose fleet had moored in
Manila Bay Manila Bay ( fil, Look ng Maynila) is a natural harbor that serves the Port of Manila (on Luzon), in the Philippines. Strategically located around the capital city of the Philippines, Manila Bay facilitated commerce and trade between the Phi ...
, sent Luna to the
trench A trench is a type of excavation or in the ground that is generally deeper than it is wide (as opposed to a wider gully, or ditch), and narrow compared with its length (as opposed to a simple hole or pit). In geology, trenches result from ero ...
es where he ordered his troops to fire on the Americans. After the chaos following the American occupation, at a meeting in Ermita, Luna tried to complain to American officers about the disorderly conduct of their soldiers. To silence Luna, Aguinaldo appointed him as Chief of War Operations on September 26, 1898, and assigned the rank of
brigadier general Brigadier general or Brigade general is a military rank used in many countries. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries. The rank is usually above a colonel, and below a major general or divisional general. When appointed ...
. In quick succession, he was made the Director or Assistant Secretary of War and Supreme Chief of the Republican Army on September 28, arousing the envy of the other generals who were fighting since the first phase of the
Revolution In political science, a revolution (Latin: ''revolutio'', "a turn around") is a fundamental and relatively sudden change in political power and political organization which occurs when the population revolts against the government, typically due ...
. Meanwhile, Luna felt that bureaucratic placebos were being thrown his way when all he wanted was to organize and discipline the enthusiastic but ill-fed and ill-trained troops into a real army. On September 15, 1898, the Malolos Congress, the
constituent assembly A constituent assembly (also known as a constitutional convention, constitutional congress, or constitutional assembly) is a body assembled for the purpose of drafting or revising a constitution. Members of a constituent assembly may be elected b ...
of the
First Philippine Republic The Philippine Republic ( es, República Filipina), now officially known as the First Philippine Republic, also referred to by historians as the Malolos Republic, was established in Malolos, Bulacan during the Philippine Revolution against ...
, was convened in
Barasoain Church Barásoain Church (official title: Our Lady of Mount Carmel Parish) is a Roman Catholic church built in 1888 in Malolos, Bulacan. It is about 42 kilometers from Manila. Having earned the title as the "Cradle of Democracy in the East, the most impo ...
. Luna would be one of the elected representatives, and was narrowly defeated by
Pedro Paterno Pedro Alejandro Paterno y de Vera IgnacioGarcía Castellón, Manuel. (February 27, 1857 – April 26, 1911, 993 pages) was a Filipino politician infamous for being a turncoat. He was also a poet and a novelist. His intervention on behalf of th ...
as President of the Congress with a vote of 24–23. Seeing the need for a military school, in October 1898, Luna established a military academy at
Malolos Malolos, officially the City of Malolos ( fil, Lungsod ng Malolos), is a 1st class Cities of the Philippines#Legal classification, component city and capital of the Provinces of the Philippines, province of Bulacan, Philippines. According to th ...
, known as the ''Academia Militar'', which was the precursor of the present
Philippine Military Academy The Philippine Military Academy ( fil, Akademiyang Militar ng Pilipinas / es, Academia Militar de Filipinas) also referred to by its acronym PMA is the premier military academy for Filipinos aspiring for a commission as a military officer of ...
. He appointed Colonel Manuel Bernal Sityar, a
mestizo (; ; fem. ) is a term used for racial classification to refer to a person of mixed Ethnic groups in Europe, European and Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Indigenous American ancestry. In certain regions such as Latin America, it may also r ...
who was formerly a lieutenant serving the Civil Guard, as superintendent. He recruited other mestizos and Spaniards who had fought in the Spanish army during the 1896 Revolution for training. However, the academy had to be suspended indefinitely by March 1899 due to the outbreak of the Philippine–American War. A score of veteran officers became teachers at his military school. Luna devised two courses of instruction, planned the reorganization, with a
battalion A battalion is a military unit, typically consisting of 300 to 1,200 soldiers commanded by a lieutenant colonel, and subdivided into a number of companies (usually each commanded by a major or a captain). In some countries, battalions are ...
of ''tiradores'' and a cavalry squadron, set up an inventory of guns and ammunition, arsenals, using convents and town halls,
quartermaster Quartermaster is a military term, the meaning of which depends on the country and service. In land armies, a quartermaster is generally a relatively senior soldier who supervises stores or barracks and distributes supplies and provisions. In m ...
s,
lookout A lookout or look-out is a person in charge of the observation of hazards. The term originally comes from a naval background, where lookouts would watch for other ships, land, and various dangers. The term has now passed into wider parlance. ...
s and communication systems. He built trenches with the help of his chief engineer, General
Jose Alejandrino Jose is the English transliteration of the Hebrew and Aramaic name ''Yose'', which is etymologically linked to ''Yosef'' or Joseph. The name was popular during the Mishnaic and Talmudic periods. *Jose ben Abin *Jose ben Akabya *Jose the Galilean ...
, and had his brother
Juan ''Juan'' is a given name, the Spanish and Manx versions of ''John''. It is very common in Spain and in other Spanish-speaking communities around the world and in the Philippines, and also (pronounced differently) in the Isle of Man. In Spanish, ...
design the school's uniforms (the Filipino
rayadillo Rayadillo was a blue-and-white striped cotton or flannel material used to make the military uniforms worn by Spanish colonial soldiers from the mid 19th century until the early 20th century. It was commonly worn by soldiers posted in overseas Sp ...
). He also insisted on strict discipline over and above clan armies and regional loyalties, which prevented coordination between various military units. Envisioning one united army for the Republic, clan armies, and regional loyalties presented a lack of national consciousness. Convinced that the fate of the infant Republic should be a contest for the minds of Filipinos, Luna turned to journalism to strengthen Filipino minds with the ideas of nationhood and the need to fight the Americans. He decided to publish a newspaper, ''La Independencia''. This four-page daily was filled with articles, short stories, patriotic songs and poems. The staff was installed in one of the coaches of the train that ran from Manila to
Pangasinan Pangasinan, officially the Province of Pangasinan ( pag, Luyag/Probinsia na Pangasinan, ; ilo, Probinsia ti Pangasinan; tl, Lalawigan ng Pangasinan), is a coastal province in the Philippines located in the Ilocos Region of Luzon. Its capit ...
. The paper came out in September 1898 and was an instant success. A movable feast of information, humor, and good writing, 4,000 copies were printed, which was more than all the other newspapers in circulation put together. When the
Treaty of Paris Treaty of Paris may refer to one of many treaties signed in Paris, France: Treaties 1200s and 1300s * Treaty of Paris (1229), which ended the Albigensian Crusade * Treaty of Paris (1259), between Henry III of England and Louis IX of France * Trea ...
, under which Spain was to cede the Philippines to the United States, was made public in December 1898, Luna quickly decided to take military action. He proposed a strategy that was designed to trap the Americans in Manila before more of their troops could land by executing surprise attacks (
guerrilla warfare Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare in which small groups of combatants, such as paramilitary personnel, armed civilians, or Irregular military, irregulars, use military tactics including ambushes, sabotage, Raid (military), raids ...
) while building up strength in the north. If the American forces penetrated his lines, Luna determined that he would wage a series of delaying battles and prepare a
fortress A fortification is a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Latin ''fortis'' ("strong") and ''facere'' ...
in northern
Luzon Luzon (; ) is the largest and most populous island in the Philippines. Located in the northern portion of the Philippines archipelago, it is the economic and political center of the nation, being home to the country's capital city, Manila, as ...
, particularly the
Cordillera A cordillera is an extensive chain and/or network system of mountain ranges, such as those in the west coast of the Americas. The term is borrowed from Spanish, where the word comes from , a diminutive of ('rope'). The term is most commonly u ...
. This, however, was turned down by the High Command, who still believed that the Americans would grant full independence.


Outbreak of the war

The Americans gained the time and the opportunity to start hostilities with the Filipinos at the place and time of their choice. On the night of February 4, 1899, when most of the Filipino generals were at a ball in Malolos to celebrate the success of the American anti-imperialists delaying the ratification of the Treaty of Paris, the Americans staged an incident along the concrete blockhouses in
Santa Mesa Santa Mesa is a district in Manila, Philippines. It is surrounded by Pasig River on the southwestern side, and by the San Juan River on its southern and eastern side. Land borders include the districts of San Miguel to the west and Sampaloc t ...
near the Balsahan Bridge. An American patrol fired on Filipino troops, claiming afterwards that the Filipinos had started shooting first. The whole Filipino line from
Pasay Pasay, officially the City of Pasay ( fil, Lungsod ng Pasay; ), is a 1st class Cities of the Philippines#Legal classification, highly urbanized city in the Metro Manila, National Capital Region of the Philippines. According to the 2020 census, i ...
to Caloocan returned fire and the first battle of the Filipino-American War ensued. Two days later, in response to the incident, the US Senate voted for
annexation Annexation (Latin ''ad'', to, and ''nexus'', joining), in international law, is the forcible acquisition of one state's territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory. It is generally held to be an illegal act ...
. In doing so, the conflict became the war of conquest, occupation, and annexation that Luna, Mabini, and others had predicted and about which they had warned Aguinaldo and his generals previously. Luna, after receiving orders from Aguinaldo, rushed to the front lines from his headquarters at Polo (present-day
Valenzuela City Valenzuela (, Tagalog: ), officially the City of Valenzuela ( fil, Lungsod ng Valenzuela), is a 1st class highly urbanized city in the National Capital Region of the Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 714,978 people ...
) and led three companies to La Loma to engage General
Arthur MacArthur Arthur MacArthur is the name of: *Arthur MacArthur Sr. (1815–1896), lieutenant governor of Wisconsin and acting governor for four days; United States federal judge *Arthur MacArthur Jr. (1845–1912), his son, general in the United States Army an ...
's forces. Fighting took place at
Marikina Marikina (), officially the City of Marikina ( fil, Lungsod ng Marikina), is a 1st class highly urbanized city in the National Capital Region of the Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 456,159 people. It is loca ...
,
Caloocan Caloocan, officially the City of Caloocan ( fil, Lungsod ng Caloocan; ), is a 1st class highly urbanized city in Metropolitan Manila, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 1,661,584 people making it the fourth-most ...
, Santa Ana, and
Paco Paco is a Spanish nickname for Francisco. According to folk etymology, the nickname has its origins in Saint Francis of Assisi, who was the father of the Franciscan order; his name was written in Latin by the order as ''Pater Communitatis'' (fath ...
. The Filipinos were subjected to a carefully planned attack with
naval artillery Naval artillery is artillery mounted on a warship, originally used only for naval warfare and then subsequently used for naval gunfire support, shore bombardment and anti-aircraft roles. The term generally refers to tube-launched projectile-firi ...
, with Admiral
George Dewey George Dewey (December 26, 1837January 16, 1917) was Admiral of the Navy, the only person in United States history to have attained that rank. He is best known for his victory at the Battle of Manila Bay during the Spanish–American War, with ...
's US fleet firing from the
Manila Bay Manila Bay ( fil, Look ng Maynila) is a natural harbor that serves the Port of Manila (on Luzon), in the Philippines. Strategically located around the capital city of the Philippines, Manila Bay facilitated commerce and trade between the Phi ...
. Filipino casualties were high, amounting to around 2,000 killed and wounded. Luna personally had to carry wounded officers and men to safety; of these, the most dramatic rescue was that of Commander
José Torres Bugallón José Torres Bugallón y Gonzales (August 28, 1873 – February 4, 1899) was a Filipino military officer who fought and served the Spanish Government during the Philippine Revolution against the revolutionaries and joins the Philippine Revolu ...
. After being hit by an American bullet, Bugallón had managed to advance another fifty meters before he was seen by Luna collapsed by the side of the road. As the Americans continued their fire on the road, Luna gathered an escort of around 25 men to save Bugallón, who Luna stated was equivalent to 500 men. Surviving the encounter, Luna encouraged Bugallón to live by giving an instant promotion to lieutenant colonel. However, Bugallón succumbed to his wounds. On February 7, Luna issued a detailed order to the field officers of the territorial militia. Containing five specific objects, it began with "Under the barbarous attack upon our army on February 4", and ended with "...war without quarter to false Americans who wish to enslave us. Independence or death!" The order labelled the US forces "an army of drunkards and thieves" in response to the continued bombardment of the towns around Manila, the burning and looting of whole districts, and the raping of Filipino women by US troops. When Luna saw that the American advance had halted, mainly to stabilize their lines, he again mobilized his troops to attack La Loma on February 10. Fierce fighting ensued but the Filipinos were forced to withdraw thereafter. Caloocan was left with American forces in control of the southern terminus of the Manila to
Dagupan Dagupan, officially the City of Dagupan ( pag, Siyudad na Dagupan, ilo, Siudad ti Dagupan, fil, Lungsod ng Dagupan), is a 2nd class independent component city in the Ilocos Region, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a populatio ...
railway, along with five engines, fifty
passenger coach A passenger railroad car or passenger car (United States), also called a passenger carriage, passenger coach (United Kingdom and International Union of Railways), or passenger bogie (India) is a railroad car that is designed to carry passen ...
es, and a hundred
freight car A railroad car, railcar (American and Canadian English), railway wagon, railway carriage, railway truck, railwagon, railcarriage or railtruck (British English and UIC), also called a train car, train wagon, train carriage or train truck, is a ...
s. After consolidating control of Caloocan, the obvious next objective for American forces would be the Republic capital at Malolos. However, General
Elwell Otis Elwell Stephen Otis (March 25, 1838 – October 21, 1909) was a United States Army general who served in the American Civil War, Indian Wars, the Philippines late in the Spanish–American War and during the Philippine–American War. Biography ...
delayed for almost a month in hopes that Filipino forces would be deployed in its defense. Nevertheless, with their superior firepower and newly arrived reinforcements, the Americans had not expected such resistance. They were so surprised that an urgent cable was sent to General Henry Lawton who was in Colombo, Ceylon (now
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්‍රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
), with his troops. Illustrating the concern that the Americans had. The
telegram Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of messages where the sender uses symbolic codes, known to the recipient, rather than a physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus flag semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas p ...
stated, "Situation critical in Manila. Your early arrival great importance."


Luna Sharpshooters and the Black Guard

The
Luna Sharpshooters The Luna Sharpshooters, also known as the "Marksmen of Death" (Spanish: ''Tiradores de la Muerte''), was an elite unit formed by General Antonio Luna to serve under the Philippine Revolutionary Army. They became famous for fighting fiercer than ...
was a short-lived unit formed by Luna to serve under the
Philippine Revolutionary Army The Philippine Revolutionary Army, later renamed Philippine Republican Army (Philippine Spanish, Spanish: ''Ejército Revolucionario Filipino''; Tagalog language, Tagalog: ''Panghimagsikang Hukbong Katihan ng Pilipinas''), was the official arme ...
. On February 11, eight
infantrymen Infantry is a military specialization which engages in ground combat on foot. Infantry generally consists of light infantry, mountain infantry, motorized infantry & mechanized infantry, airborne infantry, air assault infantry, and marin ...
, formerly under Captains Márquez and Jaro, were sent by then-Secretary of War
Baldomero Aguinaldo Baldomero Aguinaldo y Baloy (February 27, 1869 – February 4, 1915) was a leader of the Philippine Revolution. He was the first cousin of Emilio Aguinaldo, the first president of the Philippines, as well as the grandfather of Cesar Virata, a ...
to Luna, then-Assistant Secretary of War. The infantrymen were disarmed by the Americans. So, they journeyed to be commissioned in the regular Filipino army. Seeing their desire to serve in the army, Luna took them in and from their group grew and emerged as the Luna Sharpshooters. The
sharpshooter A sharpshooter is one who is highly proficient at firing firearms or other projectile weapons accurately. Military units composed of sharpshooters were important factors in 19th-century combat. Along with "marksman" and "expert", "sharpshooter" i ...
s became famous for their fierce fighting and proved their worth by being the usual spearheading unit in every major battle in the
Philippine–American War The Philippine–American War or Filipino–American War ( es, Guerra filipina-estadounidense, tl, Digmaang Pilipino–Amerikano), previously referred to as the Philippine Insurrection or the Tagalog Insurgency by the United States, was an arm ...
. After the
Battle of Calumpit The Battle of Calumpit (Filipino language, Filipino: ''Labanan sa Quingua''), alternately known as the Battles of Bagbag and Pampanga Rivers, was fought from April 25–27, 1899, in Calumpit, Bulacan, during the Philippine–American War. Taking ...
on April 25–27, 1899, only seven or eight of them remained in the regular Filipino army. In the
Battle of Paye The Battle of Paye was a battle during the Philippine–American War between the United States and the Philippines. It was fought on January 31, 1900, at Sitio Paye near Barangay Balimbing in the town of Boac, Marinduque , officially the ...
on December 18, 1899, a Filipino sharpshooter, Private Bonifacio Mariano, under the command of General
Licerio Gerónimo Licerio Gerónimo y Imaya (August 27, 1855 – January 16, 1924) was a general of the Philippine Revolutionary Forces under Emilio Aguinaldo. He is remembered in Philippine–American War annals as the opposing general to Major General Henry Wa ...
killed General
Henry Ware Lawton Henry Ware Lawton (March 17, 1843 – December 19, 1899) was a U.S. Army officer who served with distinction in the Civil War, the Apache Wars, and the Spanish–American War. He was the only U.S. general officer to be killed during the Philippi ...
, making the latter the highest ranking casualty during the course of the war. Luna also formed other units similar to the sharpshooters. One was the unit, which would later be named after Bugallón, commanded by Rosendo Simón de Pajarillo. The unit emerged from a group of ten men wanting to volunteer in the regular Filipino army. Luna, still thinking of the defeat at the
Battle of Caloocan The Battle of Caloocan was one of the opening engagements of the Philippine–American War, and was fought between a U.S. force under the command of Arthur MacArthur Jr. and Filipino defenders commanded by Antonio Luna in 1899. American troops ...
, sent the men away at first. However, he soon changed his mind and decided to give the men an initiation. After taking breakfast, he ordered a subordinate, Colonel Queri, to prepare arms and ammunition for the ten men. Then, the men boarded a train destined towards Malinta, which was American-held territory. After giving orders to the men, he let them go and watched them with his telescope. The men, succeeding their mission, eventually returned unharmed. Admiring their bravery, he organized them into a guerrilla unit of around 50 members. This unit would see action in the
Second Battle of Caloocan The Second Battle of Caloocan ( fil, Ikalawang Labanan sa Caloocan, es, Segunda Batalla de Caloocan), alternately called the Second Battle of Manila, was fought from February 22 to 24, 1899, in Caloocan during the Philippine–American War. Th ...
. Another elite unit was the Black Guard, a 25-man guerrilla unit under a certain Lieutenant García. García, one of Luna's favorites, was a modest but brave soldier. His unit was tasked to approach the enemy by surprise and quickly return to camp. Luna had admired García's unit very much that he wanted to increase their size. However, García declined the offer. He believed that a larger force might undermine the efficiency of their work.
Jose Alejandrino Jose is the English transliteration of the Hebrew and Aramaic name ''Yose'', which is etymologically linked to ''Yosef'' or Joseph. The name was popular during the Mishnaic and Talmudic periods. *Jose ben Abin *Jose ben Akabya *Jose the Galilean ...
, the chief army engineer and one of Luna's aides, stated that he never heard of García and his unit again after Luna's resignation on February 28.


Further operations during the war

A Filipino counterattack began at dawn on February 23. The plan was to employ a
pincer movement The pincer movement, or double envelopment, is a military maneuver in which forces simultaneously attack both flanks (sides) of an enemy formation. This classic maneuver holds an important foothold throughout the history of warfare. The pin ...
, using the battalions from the North and South, with the sharpshooters (the only professionally trained troops) at crucial points. The ''sandatahanes'' or bolomen inside Manila would start a great fire to signal the start of the assault. Troops directly under Luna's command were divided into three: the West Brigade under General Pantaleon García, the Center Brigade under General Mariano Llanera, and the East Brigade under General
Licerio Gerónimo Licerio Gerónimo y Imaya (August 27, 1855 – January 16, 1924) was a general of the Philippine Revolutionary Forces under Emilio Aguinaldo. He is remembered in Philippine–American War annals as the opposing general to Major General Henry Wa ...
. Luna even requested the battle-hardened Tinio Brigade from
Northern Luzon Luzon (; ) is the largest and most populous island in the Philippines. Located in the northern portion of the Philippines archipelago, it is the economic and political center of the nation, being home to the country's capital city, Manila, as ...
, under the command of General Manuel Tinio. It had more than 1,900 soldiers. However, Aguinaldo gave only ambiguous answers and the Tinio Brigade was unable to participate in the battle. It was only partly successful because of two main reasons. Firstly, some of the successful Filipino sectors ran low on ammunition and food and were thus forced to withdraw to Polo. Secondly, Luna failed to relieve the
Kapampangan Kapampangan, Capampañgan or Pampangan may refer to: *Kapampangan people of the Philippines *Kapampangan language Kapampangan or Pampangan is an Austronesian language, and one of the eight major languages of the Philippines. It is the primary ...
militia, already past their prime, when the battalion from
Kawit Kawit, officially the Municipality of Kawit ( tgl, Bayan ng Kawit), is a first-class municipality in the province of Cavite, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 107,535. It is one of the notable places that had ...
,
Cavite Cavite, officially the Province of Cavite ( tl, Lalawigan ng Kabite; Chavacano: ''Provincia de Cavite''), is a province in the Philippines located in the Calabarzon region in Luzon. Located on the southern shores of Manila Bay and southwest ...
, refused to replace the former, saying that they had orders to obey only instructions directly from Aguinaldo. Such
insubordination Insubordination is the act of willfully disobeying a lawful order of one's superior. It is generally a punishable offense in hierarchical organizations such as the armed forces, which depend on people lower in the chain of command obeying ord ...
had become quite common among the Filipino forces at that time as most of the troops owed their loyalty to the officers from their provinces, towns, or districts and not to the central command. As a result, the counterattack soon collapsed, and Luna placated himself by personally disarming the Kawit Battalion. Luna, however, proved to be a strict disciplinarian and his temper alienated many in the ranks of the common soldiers. An example of this occurred during the
Battle of Calumpit The Battle of Calumpit (Filipino language, Filipino: ''Labanan sa Quingua''), alternately known as the Battles of Bagbag and Pampanga Rivers, was fought from April 25–27, 1899, in Calumpit, Bulacan, during the Philippine–American War. Taking ...
, wherein Luna ordered General
Tomás Mascardo Tomás Echenique Mascardo (born Tomás Mascardo y Echenique; October 9, 1871 – July 7, 1932) was a Filipino general during the Philippine Revolution and Philippine–American War. He joined the fight against the Spaniards at the beginning of ...
to send troops from
Guagua Guagua, officially the Municipality of Guagua ( pam, Balen ning Guagua; tl, Bayan ng Guagua), is a 1st class municipality of the Philippines, municipality in the Philippine Province, province of Pampanga, Philippines. According to the 2020 cens ...
to strengthen the former's defenses. However, Mascardo ignored orders by Luna insisting that he was going to Arayat to undertake an "inspection of troops". Another version of Mascardo's reasoning emerged and it was probably that which reached Luna. This version was that Mascardo had left to visit his girlfriend. Luna, infuriated by Mascardo's actions, had decided to detain him. However, Major Hernando, one of Luna's aides, tried to placate the general's anger by convincing Luna to push the case to President Aguinaldo. Aguinaldo complied to detain Mascardo for twenty-four hours. Upon returning to the field, however, the Americans had broken through his defenses at the Bagbag River, forcing Luna to withdraw despite his heroic action to defend the remaining sectors. Luna resigned on March 1, mainly in resentment for the rearmament of the Kawit Battalion as the Presidential Guard. Aguinaldo hesitantly accepted the resignation. As a result, Luna was absent from the field for three weeks, during which the Filipino forces suffered several defeats and setbacks. One such defeat would be at the Battle of Marilao River on March 27. Receiving the depressing reports from the field through his ''La Independencia'' correspondents, Luna went to Aguinaldo and asked to be reinstated with more powers over all the military heads, and Aguinaldo promoted him to
Lieutenant General Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a three-star military rank (NATO code OF-8) used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the ...
and agreed making him Commander-in-Chief of all the Filipino forces in Central Luzon (
Bulacan Bulacan, officially the Province of Bulacan ( tl, Lalawigan ng Bulacan), is a province in the Philippines located in the Central Luzon region. Its capital is the city of Malolos. Bulacan was established on August 15, 1578, and part of the Metr ...
,
Tarlac Tarlac, officially the Province of Tarlac ( pam, Lalawigan ning Tarlac; pag, Luyag/Probinsia na Tarlac; ilo, Probinsia ti Tarlac; tgl, Lalawigan ng Tarlac; ), is a landlocked province in the Philippines located in the Central Luzon region. It ...
,
Pampanga Pampanga, officially the Province of Pampanga ( pam, Lalawigan ning Pampanga; tl, Lalawigan ng Pampanga ), is a province in the Central Luzon region of the Philippines. Lying on the northern shore of Manila Bay, Pampanga is bordered by Tarlac ...
,
Nueva Ecija Nueva Ecija, officially the Province of Nueva Ecija ( tgl, Lalawigan ng Nueva Ecija , also ; ilo, Probinsia ti Nueva Ecija; pag, Luyag/Probinsia na Nueva Ecija; Kapampangan: ''Lalawigan/Probinsia ning Nueva Ecija''), is a landlocked province i ...
,
Bataan Bataan (), officially the Province of Bataan ( fil, Lalawigan ng Bataan ), is a province in the Central Luzon region of the Philippines. Its capital is the city of Balanga while Mariveles is the largest town in the province. Occupying the enti ...
,
Zambales Zambales, officially the Province of Zambales ( fil, Lalawigan ng Zambales; ilo, Probinsia ti Zambales; Pangasinan: ''Luyag/Probinsia na Zambales''; xsb, Probinsya nin Zambales), is a province in the Philippines located in the Central Luzon re ...
). The Luna Defense Line was planned to create a series of delaying battles from
Caloocan Caloocan, officially the City of Caloocan ( fil, Lungsod ng Caloocan; ), is a 1st class highly urbanized city in Metropolitan Manila, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 1,661,584 people making it the fourth-most ...
to
Angeles, Pampanga , anthem = Himno ning Angeles (Angeles Hymn) , subdivision_type3 = District , subdivision_name3 = , established_title = Settled , established_date = 1796 , established_title1 = Chartere ...
, as the Republic was constructing a guerrilla base in the
Mountain Province Mountain Province is a landlocked province of the Philippines in the Cordillera Administrative Region in Luzon. Its capital is Bontoc. Mountain Province was formerly referred to as ''Mountain'' in some foreign references. The name is usually short ...
. The base was planned to be the last stand headquarters of the Republic in the case the Americans broke through the Defense Line. American military observers were astonished by the Defense Line, which they described as consisting of numerous bamboo trenches stretching from town to town. The series of trenches allowed the Filipinos to withdraw gradually, firing from cover at the advancing Americans. As the American troops occupied each new position, they were subjected to a series of traps that had been set in the trenches, which included bamboo spikes and poisonous reptiles. Earlier in May 1899, Luna almost fell in the field at the Battle of Santo Tomas. Mounted on his horse, Luna then charged into the battlefield leading his main force in a counterattack. As they advanced, the American forces began firing upon them. Luna's horse was hit and he fell to the ground. As he recovered, Luna realized that he had been shot in the stomach, and he attempted to kill himself with his revolver to avoid capture. He was saved, though, by the actions of a Filipino colonel named Alejandro Avecilla who, having seen Luna fall, rode towards the general to save him. Despite being heavily wounded in one of his legs and an arm, with his remaining strength Avecilla carried Luna away from the battle to the Filipino rear. Upon reaching safety, Luna realized that his wound was not very deep as most of the impact of the bullet had been taken by a silk belt full of gold coins that his parents had given him, which he had been wearing. As he left the field to have his wounds tended, Luna turned over the command to
General A general officer is an Officer (armed forces), officer of highest military ranks, high rank in the army, armies, and in some nations' air forces, space forces, and marines or naval infantry. In some usages the term "general officer" refers t ...
Venacio Concepción, the Filipino commander of the nearby town of Angeles. Meanwhile, in recognition of his work, Luna was awarded the Philippine Republic Medal. By the end of May 1899, Colonel Joaquín Luna, one of Antonio's brothers, warned him that a plot had been concocted by "old elements" or the autonomists of the Republic (who were bent on accepting American sovereignty over the country) and a clique of army officers whom Luna had disarmed, arrested, and/or insulted. Luna shrugged off all these threats, reiterating his trust for Aguinaldo, and continued building defenses at Pangasinan where the Americans were planning a landing.


Assassination and aftermath

On June 2, 1899, Luna received two telegrams (initially four, but he never received the last two) – one asked for help in launching a counterattack in
San Fernando, Pampanga San Fernando, officially the City of San Fernando ( pam, Lakanbalen ning Sampernandu; fil, Lungsod ng San Fernando), is a 1st class component city and capital of the province of Pampanga, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a pop ...
; and the other, sent by Aguinaldo himself, ordered him to go to the new capital at
Cabanatuan Cabanatuan, officially the City of Cabanatuan ( fil, Lungsod ng Cabanatuan; ilo, Siudad ti Cabanatuan), is a 1st class component city in the province of Nueva Ecija, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 327,325 peop ...
,
Nueva Ecija Nueva Ecija, officially the Province of Nueva Ecija ( tgl, Lalawigan ng Nueva Ecija , also ; ilo, Probinsia ti Nueva Ecija; pag, Luyag/Probinsia na Nueva Ecija; Kapampangan: ''Lalawigan/Probinsia ning Nueva Ecija''), is a landlocked province i ...
to form a new
cabinet Cabinet or The Cabinet may refer to: Furniture * Cabinetry, a box-shaped piece of furniture with doors and/or drawers * Display cabinet, a piece of furniture with one or more transparent glass sheets or transparent polycarbonate sheets * Filing ...
. In his jubilation, Luna wrote
Arcadio Maxilom Arcadio is a given name. Notable people with the name include: * José Arcadio Buendía, fictional patriarch in the novel ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'' by Colombian author Gabriel García Márquez *Arcadio Arellano (1872–1920), notable archi ...
, military commander of
Cebu Cebu (; ceb, Sugbo), officially the Province of Cebu ( ceb, Lalawigan sa Sugbo; tl, Lalawigan ng Cebu; hil, Kapuroan sang Sugbo), is a province of the Philippines located in the Central Visayas region, and consists of a main island and 167 ...
, to stand firm in the war. Luna set off from
Bayambang Bayambang, officially the Municipality of Bayambang ( pag, Baley na Bayambang; ilo, Ili ti Bayambang; tgl, Bayan ng Bayambang), is a 1st class municipality in the province of Pangasinan, Philippines. According to the 2020 census it has a popul ...
, first by train, then on horseback, and eventually in three carriages to Nueva Ecija with 25 of his men. During the journey, two of the carriages broke down, so he proceeded with just one carriage with Colonel Francisco Román and Captain Eduardo Rusca, having earlier shed his cavalry escort. On June 4, Luna sent a telegram to Aguinaldo confirming his arrival. Upon arriving at Cabanatuan on June 5, Luna proceeded to the headquarters, alone, to communicate with the President. As he went up the stairs, he ran into an officer whom he had previously disarmed for insubordination: Captain Pedro Janolino, commander of the Kawit Battalion, and an old enemy whom he had once threatened with arrest for favoring American autonomy. Captain Janolino was accompanied by Felipe Buencamino, the
Minister of Foreign Affairs A foreign affairs minister or minister of foreign affairs (less commonly minister for foreign affairs) is generally a cabinet minister in charge of a state's foreign policy and relations. The formal title of the top official varies between cou ...
and a member of the Cabinet. He was told that Aguinaldo had left for San Isidro in
Nueva Ecija Nueva Ecija, officially the Province of Nueva Ecija ( tgl, Lalawigan ng Nueva Ecija , also ; ilo, Probinsia ti Nueva Ecija; pag, Luyag/Probinsia na Nueva Ecija; Kapampangan: ''Lalawigan/Probinsia ning Nueva Ecija''), is a landlocked province i ...
(he actually went to
Bamban, Tarlac Bamban, officially the Municipality of Bamban ( pam, Balen ning Bamban; fil, Bayan ng Bamban), is a 2nd class municipality in the province of Tarlac, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 78,260 people. The municipali ...
). Enraged, Luna asked why he had not been told that the meeting was cancelled. Both exchanged heated words as he was about to depart. In the
plaza A town square (or square, plaza, public square, city square, urban square, or ''piazza'') is an open public space, commonly found in the heart of a traditional town but not necessarily a true geometric square, used for community gatherings. ...
fronting the church of Cabanatuan, a rifle shot rang out. Still outraged and furious, Luna rushed down the stairs and met Janolino, accompanied by some elements of the Kawit Battalion. Janolino swung his bolo at Luna, wounding him in the head. Janolino's men fired at Luna, while others started stabbing him, even as he tried to fire his revolver at one of his attackers. He staggered out into the plaza where Román and Rusca were rushing to his aid, but as he lay dying, they too were set upon and shot, with Román being killed and Rusca being severely wounded. Luna received more than 30 wounds, and uttered "Cowards! Assassins!" He was hurriedly buried in the
churchyard In Christian countries a churchyard is a patch of land adjoining or surrounding a church, which is usually owned by the relevant church or local parish itself. In the Scots language and in both Scottish English and Ulster-Scots, this can also ...
, after which Aguinaldo relieved Luna's officers and men from the field, including General Venacio Concepción, whose headquarters in
Angeles, Pampanga , anthem = Himno ning Angeles (Angeles Hymn) , subdivision_type3 = District , subdivision_name3 = , established_title = Settled , established_date = 1796 , established_title1 = Chartere ...
was besieged by Aguinaldo on the same day Luna was assassinated. Immediately after Luna's death, confusion reigned on both sides. The Americans even thought Luna had taken over to replace Aguinaldo. Luna's death was publicly declared only by June 8, and a circular providing details of the event released by June 13. While investigations were supposedly made concerning Luna's death, not one person was
convicted In law, a conviction is the verdict reached by a court of law finding a defendant guilty of a crime. The opposite of a conviction is an acquittal (that is, "not guilty"). In Scotland, there can also be a verdict of " not proven", which is co ...
. Later, General Pantaleon García said that it was he who was verbally ordered by Aguinaldo to conduct the assassination of Luna at Cabanatuan. His sickness at the time prevented his participation in the assassination. Aguinaldo would be firm in his stand that he had nothing to do with the assassination of Luna. The death of Luna, the most brilliant and capable of the Filipino generals at the time, was a decisive factor in the fight against the American forces. Despite mixed reactions on both the Filipino and American sides on the death of Luna, there are people from both sides who nevertheless developed an admiration for him. General
Frederick Funston Frederick Funston (November 9, 1865 – February 19, 1917), also known as Fighting Fred Funston, was a general in the United States Army, best known for his roles in the Spanish–American War and the Philippine–American War. He received ...
, who received the credit of capturing Aguinaldo at
Palanan Palanan, officially the Municipality of Palanan ( ilo, Ili ti Palanan; tl, Bayan ng Palanan), is a 1st class municipality in the province of Isabela, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 17,684 people. It was in Pal ...
, Isabela, stated that Luna was the "ablest and most aggressive leader of the Filipino Republic." For General James Franklin Bell, Luna "was the only general the Filipino army had." General Robert Hughes remarked that "with the death of General Luna, the Filipino army lost the only General it had." Meanwhile,
Apolinario Mabini Apolinario Mabini y Maranan (, July 23, 1864 – May 13, 1903) was a Filipino revolutionary leader, educator, lawyer, and statesman who served first as a legal and constitutional adviser to the Revolutionary Government, and then as the first ...
, former
Prime Minister A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister is not ...
and
Secretary of Foreign Affairs In many countries, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is the government department responsible for the state's diplomacy, bilateral, and multilateral relations affairs as well as for providing support for a country's citizens who are abroad. The entit ...
, had this to say: "If he was sometimes hasty and even cruel in his resolution, it was because the army had been brought to a desperate situation by the demoralization of the soldiers and the lack of ammunitions: nothing but action of rash courage and extraordinary energy could hinder its dissolution." Of the Filipino armed forces organized during Luna's service in the army, Major General
Henry Ware Lawton Henry Ware Lawton (March 17, 1843 – December 19, 1899) was a U.S. Army officer who served with distinction in the Civil War, the Apache Wars, and the Spanish–American War. He was the only U.S. general officer to be killed during the Philippi ...
commented, "Filipinos are a very fine set of soldiers, far better than the Indians... Inferior in every particular equipment and supplies, they are the bravest men I have ever seen... I'm very well impressed with the Filipinos!" Lawton later recanted this statement. Subsequently, Aguinaldo suffered successive, disastrous losses in the field, as he retreated northwards. On November 13, 1899, Aguinaldo decided to disperse his army and begin conducting a
guerrilla war Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare in which small groups of combatants, such as paramilitary personnel, armed civilians, or irregulars, use military tactics including ambushes, sabotage, raids, petty warfare, hit-and-run tactics ...
. General
José Alejandrino José Cándido Alejandrino y Magdangal (December 1, 1870 – June 1, 1951) was a Philippine Republican Army general during the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine–American War. He was also a senator of the Twelfth Senatorial District of ...
, one of Luna's remaining aides, stated in his memoirs that if Luna had been able to finish the planned military camp in the
Mountain Province Mountain Province is a landlocked province of the Philippines in the Cordillera Administrative Region in Luzon. Its capital is Bontoc. Mountain Province was formerly referred to as ''Mountain'' in some foreign references. The name is usually short ...
and had shifted to guerrilla warfare earlier as Luna had suggested, Aguinaldo might have avoided having to run for his life in the Cordillera Mountains. For historian
Teodoro Agoncillo Teodoro Andal Agoncillo (November 9, 1912 – January 14, 1985) was a prominent 20th-century Filipino historian. He and his contemporary Renato Constantino were among the first Filipino historians renowned for promoting a distinctly nationalist ...
, however, Luna's death did not directly contribute to the resulting fall of the Republic. In his book, ''Malolos: The Crisis of the Republic'', Agoncillo stated that the loss of Luna showed the existence of a lack of discipline among the regular Filipino soldiers and it was a major weakness that was never remedied during the course of the war. Also, soldiers connected with Luna were demoralized and as a result eventually surrendered to the Americans. Despite Aguinaldo denying the allegation of his being involved in Luna's death multiple times, an original copy of the telegram he sent to Luna was discovered in 2019 showing his order for Luna to visit Cabanatuan.


Commemoration

* The famous
University of the Philippines Diliman , image = University of The Philippines seal.svg , image_size = 175px , caption = Official Logo of UP Diliman , motto = Honor and Excellence , established = February 12, 194 ...
Sunken Garden was named General Antonio Luna Parade Grounds. * The
municipalities A municipality is usually a single administrative division having corporate status and powers of self-government or jurisdiction as granted by national and regional laws to which it is subordinate. The term ''municipality'' may also mean the go ...
of
General Luna, Quezon General Luna, officially the Municipality of General Luna ( tgl, Bayan ng Heneral Luna), is a 4th class municipality in the province of Quezon, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 24,804 people. Geography Barangay ...
and
General Luna, Surigao del Norte General Luna, officially the Municipality of General Luna ( Surigaonon: Lungsod nan General Luna; tl, Bayan ng Heneral Luna), is a 5th class municipality in the province of Surigao del Norte, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a po ...
are named after Luna. * Variants of "General Luna Street", like " Rizal Street", is one of the most common street names in the Philippines: ** General Antonio Luna Avenue, a two-lane national road in
San Mateo, Rizal San Mateo, officially the Municipality of San Mateo ( tgl, Bayan ng San Mateo), is a 1st class municipality of the Philippines, municipality in the Philippine Province, province of Rizal, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a popul ...
, was named after Luna. ** General Luna Street, stretching from Intramuros to Paco in the
Manila Manila ( , ; fil, Maynila, ), officially the City of Manila ( fil, Lungsod ng Maynila, ), is the capital of the Philippines, and its second-most populous city. It is highly urbanized and, as of 2019, was the world's most densely populate ...
, was named after Luna. Formerly Calle Real del Palacio (Intramuros) and Calle Nozaleda (Ermita-Paco), the whole stretch was integrated into one and was renamed Calle Gen. Luna during the American period. * General Antonio Luna, a barrio in
Mayorga, Leyte Mayorga (IPA: ɐ'jɔɾgɐ, officially the Municipality of Mayorga ( war, Bungto han Mayorga; tl, Bayan ng Mayorga), is a 5th class municipality in the province of Leyte, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 18,071 p ...
, is named after Luna. * Hingoso, a town in the province of
Quezon Quezon, officially the Province of Quezon ( tl, Lalawigan ng Quezon), is a Provinces of the Philippines, province in the Philippines located in the Calabarzon Regions of the Philippines, region on Luzon. Kalilayan was the first known name of th ...
(formerly Tayabas), was renamed to General Luna, Quezon, General Luna, in honor of Luna. * In 1951, the first postwar Philippine fifty peso bill featured a portrait of Luna until it was replaced in 1969 by a portrait of Sergio Osmeña. * In 1958, a stamp featuring Luna was released on his 92nd birth anniversary. * After the 102nd anniversary of Luna's birth (1968), former President Ferdinand Marcos delivered a speech about the general. He said that Luna's guerrilla tactics preceded that of China's Mao Zedong and Vietnam's Võ Nguyên Giáp and Ho Chi Minh. * In 1999, the second and last of the General Emilio Aguinaldo-class patrol vessels was Ship commissioning, commissioned by the Philippine Navy. It was named BRP Gen. Antonio Luna (PG-141), after the general of the same name. A second ship of the Jose Rizal-class frigate acquired from South Korea is named after him, the BRP Antonio Luna (FF-151). * A monument of Luna was erected at Plaza Lucero in
Cabanatuan Cabanatuan, officially the City of Cabanatuan ( fil, Lungsod ng Cabanatuan; ilo, Siudad ti Cabanatuan), is a 1st class component city in the province of Nueva Ecija, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 327,325 peop ...
,
Nueva Ecija Nueva Ecija, officially the Province of Nueva Ecija ( tgl, Lalawigan ng Nueva Ecija , also ; ilo, Probinsia ti Nueva Ecija; pag, Luyag/Probinsia na Nueva Ecija; Kapampangan: ''Lalawigan/Probinsia ning Nueva Ecija''), is a landlocked province i ...
. *
Manila Manila ( , ; fil, Maynila, ), officially the City of Manila ( fil, Lungsod ng Maynila, ), is the capital of the Philippines, and its second-most populous city. It is highly urbanized and, as of 2019, was the world's most densely populate ...
Mayor of Manila, Mayor Alfredo Lim led a commemorative program on Luna's 144th birth anniversary (2010). * A Philippine military base, Camp Antonio Luna in Limay, Bataan, was named after the general. It is currently the Office of the Director of the Government Arsenal. * The defunct Philippine Constabulary Academy had a building known as Luna Hall. * "General Luna" a march by Julián Felipe in honor of General Luna. * "Kabanatuan" a funeral march by Julio Nakpil dedicated to General Luna who was assassinated in Cabanatuan.


In popular culture

* Portrayed by Christopher de Leon in the film ''El Presidente (film), El Presidente'' (2012). * Portrayed by JC Tiuseco in the TV series ''Ilustrado (TV series), Ilustrado'' (2014). * Portrayed by Marc Abaya and John Arcilla in the film ''Heneral Luna'' (2015). ** Arcilla reprised the role for KFC, KFC Philippines's Christmas advertising campaign by Ogilvy & Mather in 2017.


References


Citations


Books

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Further reading

* *


External links

*Ambeth Ocampo
The way Antonio Luna died
September 11, 2015, ''Philippine Daily Inquirer''. * {{DEFAULTSORT:Luna, Antonio 1866 births 1899 deaths Aguinaldo administration personnel Assassinated Filipino people Assassinated military personnel Ateneo de Manila University alumni Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs (Philippines) Complutense University of Madrid alumni Filipino generals Filipino pharmacists Filipino propagandists Filipino scientists Ilocano people Male murder victims Paramilitary Filipinos People from Ilocos Norte People from San Nicolas, Manila People murdered in the Philippines People of the Philippine–American War People of the Philippine Revolution Philippine Army Spanish-language writers of the Philippines University of Barcelona alumni University of Santo Tomas alumni